International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication

Question: Discuss about the International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication. Answer: Introduction The art of negotiation refers to the process wherein parties enter into a beneficial agreement and outcome for an existing conflict(Goltsman, 2009). Through negotiation both the parties can be benefitted or either of the parties; depends upon the strategies involved in negotiation. It is a system that includes resolving differences amongst the aggrieved parties such that outcomes of such can satisfy the needs of agreement. Trust in negotiation has an integral role to play. It helps to consider the effectiveness of such negotiated contracts and determine success of many negotiations. Negotiations are not final and often involve parties to cooperate and abide by terms of contracts such as to improvise and meet final goals of the contract(Rubin, 2013). Negotiation forms an integral role in everyday lives and conducted without knowledge of being its presence. Negotiation occurs in organizations, businesses, between governments, sales, legal proceedings, marriage, and divorce and so on. T hough there are often professional negotiators who consider various aspects of situation and leverage benefits for each party. Skilled diplomats, ardent advocate, top salesperson generally conduct organized lobby for conducting negotiations, according to Lewicki (2011) but negotiation has application in everyday lives as well. The scope of this current essay analyses the multi-disciplinary approach of negotiation and skills of a professional negotiator for resolving conflict(Lewicki, 2011). Culture has an important impact in context of negotiating successful contracts and is effective while evaluating contracts in globalized business environment. These various aspects in the process of negotiation will help understand and analyse the concept in a better way. The essay initially adopts the process of negotiation and then highlights the critical skills that are required for a successful negotiator, then establishes the cultural factors that have an integral role in global negotiations . Analysis Globalization and expansion of businesses across national borders and boundaries have impended higher for negotiators to resolve conflicts. While the act of negotiation is not only limited to the area of business contracts broader scope impending higher levels responsibility in resolving conflicts(Bayne, 2011). Traditional approach of conflict had different implications rather than negotiation. Negotiation begins once aggrieved party has been negatively impacted, as conflict is viewed as natural and inevitable when groups work together, it becomes essential to resolve them as well. In organizations conflict is often viewed as a process that is inevitable for groups in order that they can improvise their performances. Prior to negotiations processes, conflict was often characterized negatively which was synonymous to violence and harms. While conflict is a result of inadequate and improper communications, lack of trust and failure of managers to meet aspirations of employees, negotiat ion aims to bridge these gaps. There are a multiple type of strategies that are used in negotiations, it can be distributive strategy or integrative strategy and so on(Brewster, 2011). In distributive bargaining there is a zero sum game and the benefit is shared. Whereas in case of integrative bargaining winning is associated with both the parties, here both the parties need to indulge in the process of bargaining. Negotiation in professional context is a broad laid down process that initiates with the process of preparation and planning. In case of a conflict the goals of both the parties needs to be taken into consideration and then clear indication has to be met such that negotiation can process according to those described and well-defined objectives(Ashmore, 2009). All relevant information regarding the conflict and outcome demanded from the same needs to be assessed and accommodated to arrive at a suitable solution. Clear cut rules for the process of negotiation helps to proceed further and settle disputes in an easier manner. While providing adequate strategy for the problem, parties needs to be provided various alternatives amongst which they may select and reach a point of congruence for themselves. Once a suitable solution is reached then formalized agreement for the negotiated solution is adopted and implemented by constant monitoring. Individuals skills plays a predominant role in n egotiation, factors include moods, emotions, gender, culture, personality and so on. Personality traits of negotiator have an important role in successful distributive bargaining procedure(Dewulf, 2009). In case of professional negotiations often a mediator or a consultant is appointed to arrive at suitable outcomes form the same. Every organization especially in global business needs to have a successful negotiator such that they are able to suitably negotiate contracts. A skilled negotiator is an asset for an organization, who with his interpersonal skills is capable of negotiating critical contracts(Pruitt, 2013). A skilled negotiator needs to possess the following capabilities as problem analysis, active listening, emotional control, capability to communicate effectively, problem solving tactics, decision making capabilities, ethics and reliability and so on. A successful negotiator requires a collection of interpersonal skills along with communication skills to reach a desired result for the same. While the need arises when parties or individuals disagree to a particular contact and negotiation is required such that an agreement can be reached where each parties accept a proposal(Curhan, 2007). An effective negotiator needs to have skills such that he is able to analyze a problem to ascertain interests of each party in the negotiation. A detailed analysis of such demands of parties will help negotiator define goals better and form suitable strategies for outcomes. A skilled negotiator generally calls for a meeting post evaluation of objectives and prior to entering a bargaining situation. Negotiator needs to be an active listener as well as in case of professional contracts or in unprofessional cases(Van Hasselt, 2008). Active listening allows take important points related to the debate which can be useful for negotiations. Active listening includes ability to verbal communications and comprehends ones body language in order to assess actual needs from such negotiations. Active listening allows negotiator to establish areas of compromise and form suitable decisions. Negotiator needs to also possess qualities of emotional control as in case of contentious issues it can lead to frustrations(Van Kleef, 2007). In case a negotiator allows emotions to take control during successful negotiation of contracts then there is a high possibility of an unfavorable result occurring from such negotiations. Emotions can also lead to breaking down of successful negotiation amongst aggrieved parties. A skilled negotiator generally possesses capabilities to communicate effectively in verbal modes. Effective verbal communications allows communicating and convincing the other party in case of negotiation. Clear verbal communications reduced misunderstandings and to put forward desired outcomes or reasoning according to objectives laid down(Ting?Toomey, 2015). Negotiation being a collaborative arrangement requires parties from either side to enter into an arrangement and teamwork. An effective negotiator thus, needs to possess skills that enable team to work together and foster an ambience that is conducive towards negotiations. This allows parties from both sides to reach an agreeable solution to reach an agreement. A negotiator needs to possess effective leadership skills that allow decision making capabilities. A leader is capable of bargaining with both the parties such that a quick end to a compromise can be reached(DuBrin, 2015). A successful negotiator needs to possess interpe rsonal skills which enables him to maintain good working relationship such as to reach an effective negotiation. A patient negotiator has capability to persuade and manipulate a positive ambience such that compromise in case of difficult negotiations can be reached. The most vital and critical requirement of a successful negotiator is ethics and reliability that allows to promote a trustworthy environment suitable for negotiations. A negotiator with promises and agreements adopts suitable arrangements and ends a bargaining and then executes them(Loukaitou-Sideris, 2009). The scope of globalized business and cross-border operations has led to cross-cultural businesses. Culture is a predominant factor that influences the ways individuals think, react, behave and communicate. Cultures have also been found to be profoundly affecting transactions types that people enter into and ways they negotiate. Diversity amongst greatest cultures around world can inflict difficult situations and decision impairments for skilled negotiators. Negotiating executives needs to have a thorough and clear understanding of culture that can enable them to form contracts for suitable negotiations process that can bridge cultures across international businesses(Edwards, 2007). Negotiators in international businesses needs to view the purpose of negotiating contracts, while some view negotiation as a part of business processes for others it might be a way to establish relationships. According to predominance of a particular style of culture, one might select a formal way whereas for other establishing relationships might be the goal in signing of an agreement. A skilled negotiator is one who possesses capabilities to enter into a formal posture for a contract and then can adopt suitable informal ways as the case may demand(Gunia, 2011). Negotiating attitude is another pre-disposition that is accounted for varied cultures. While one culture might view win-win situation as a successful deal making, collaborative endeavor. On the other hand, win-lose situation might be viewed as multiple cultures as confrontational. A negotiator role is to ascertain demands on the basis of culture of the other party such that agreement can be formed accordingly, as in Asian cu ltures there is a predominance of win-win process compared to those of Western cultures(Schneider, 2012). Personal style and attitude of the negotiator also plays an important role in determining negotiation levels of a contract. Informal or formal style followed by a negotiator is greatly influenced by cultures, it includes ways negotiator talks to parties, makes use of titles, dresses, verbal communication that he uses and interactions that the makes. A German negotiator is most likely to use formal methods in negotiation compared to an American negotiator. An informal negotiator is more likely to make use of first names, develop personal relationships and make agreement with an informal note. Formalities has an integral role in any type of negotiations thus, in foreign cultures negotiators needs to make use of proper respect and adopt appropriate formalities to conclude using suitable arrangements.(Huang, 2010) A formal posture in international business is considered safer and mo re suitable compared to an informal one. Communication methods varies across various cultures around the world, while some cultures emphasizes on direct and simple communications, others stresses on indirect and complex ways. In case of indirect communication there are a lot of attributes from non-verbal communication as gestures, facial expressions, figurative speech, circumlocutions and other forms of body languages that are used(McPhee, 2009). A negotiator needs to assess such complex attributes in order to reach at suitable agreements as in American cultures, they make use of directive and definitive assessments. Whereas in case of Japanese cultures, a negotiator needs to interpret speech, signs, gestures, comments and other ways to understand objectives towards an arrangement. Such diverse communication styles can often lead to further conflict and confrontations or disapprovals. In case of international business or arrangements between governments such aspects of communication needs to be considered. Cultural dependen ce on time is also depicts the type of negotiating patterns they follow. In some cultures there is a high dependence on time compared to others. Germans are more punctual and Latins are generally late. While Americans tends to enter into quick decisions, Japanese have a habit of entering into a negotiation process gradually(Horst, 2012). Negotiators needs value and devote time as a separate dimension that each culture devotes towards their goal pursued in negotiating contracts. Emotionalism has an account in negotiating between contracts as cultures have tendency to act according to a particular emotions. Certain cultures have a predominance to reflect their emotions in negotiations while other cultures tend to hide as Japanese and other Asian groups. Negotiators need to learn all attributes of emotions that correspond to a particular culture while dealing with a cross-cultural party. While Latin and Spanishs have highest respect towards emotionalism, Germans and English have least emotion while negotiations(Luthans, 2009). Terms related to negotiation have a role as general or specific contracts are often treated according to cultures differently. Generally, negotiators enters into a written agreement for a transaction, type of encapsulations used in such cases in determinant on its cultures. While Americans have a preference for detailed contracts with written agreement Chinese prefer a shorter agreement. Other factors that influences negotiators while fo rming suitable arrangement are bottom up or top-down approach, team organization of a negotiator and risk taking capabilities of the same(Putnam, 2010). In building of a contract for negotiation, either an inductive or a deductive process is followed. Every culture has their emphasis on various attributes, while some focus on price, delivery date, and other focus on product quality or the sum total of the contract. While Americans have a tendency to specify each terms of the contract, French prefers to begin their contract in general ways and means. Cultures determine the ways and methods in which a contract might be written down. The essence of forming contract between parties involves relationship building between them. Thus, party to the contract needs to look at the circumstances that lead to such negotiations and not look at only the problem that can be solved. Americans generally enters into a deal by way of several trade-offs with a long lists providing all particulars. While French, Argentinians and many more make deals in atop down approach, Japanese, Brazilian and Mexican adopt a deductive method. Culture is another important factor that determines ways decisions are made in negotiations(Lin, 2009). Commitments, trust levels, stress, group value and all other influences ways and means by which negotiations are made. While certain cultures have high predisposition towards consensual arrangements others tend to prefer following leader. Culture is a predominant factor that enables ways that executives negotiate a particular contract and impacts deals on each side of the organization. In some cultures leader is entrusted with responsibilities and supreme authority to decide on a contract, often Americans tends to follow this approach. Asian cultures like those of Chinese and Japanese depend upon team for consensus decision making. Hence, it might take longer periods of time for Chinese or Japanese to negotiate a contract aand shorter periods of time for Americans. Variances amongst cultures in ways they enter decision can impact the quality of negotiation entered into. Further, research indicates while some cultures are more risks averse other is risk-taking in nature. For a risk averting culture, negotiator needs to progress on the deal gradually and prose accordingly. He needs to make sure that the counterpart obtains sufficient information and focuses on building a long-lasting relationship such that a suitable deal can be structured. Differences in form of arrangements is a result of unequal bargaining power amongst parties that can arise form cultural differences. While stronger party to the agreement looks at ways and means to have a detailed contract laid down and weaker party always accepts a more general form of agreement. Thus, from this discussion it can be concluded that culture affects negotiation traits of individuals. Resolving conflicts and reaching an appropriate contract has become solidary aim of businesses that transact globally. While a business might appoint a negotiator merely by his qualification, the actual role of a negotiator arises from his capabilities to successfully conclude contracts. In case of a single country contract or in case of single culture there might be lesser challenges but a negotiator needs to prepare oneself for the course of cross-cultural contracts. Not being limited to course of rules of basic negotiation, cross-cultural negotiations impends higher responsibilities on contracting parties such that it turns into a successful relationship. Negotiation styles have immense variations amongst them; suitable traits and adaptation to culture can help obtain a suitable outcome. The figure above is a representation of all factors and their impact on negotiation in case of varied culture. Thus, along with personality and traits of the negotiator culture has a predominant role to play in successful negotiation to take place(Imai, 2010). In globalized environment for a negotiator to be successful and effective he needs to develop personality traits and skills. Further, accordance to specific culture a negotiator needs to accumulate specific data and facts that can help him arrive at suitable decision and discussions related to the parties and to understand their prerogative and demands from the arrangement. Conclusion The act of negotiation comprises of several steps and stages for diplomats as well as other types of negotiation. While professional might follow steps in resolving conflict and arriving at a suitable solution, amateurs might conduct the same with an easier approach. Skills in negotiation act as an important factor to generate suitable outcomes. A professional negotiator evaluates various alternatives and outcomes prior to suggesting and reaching a goal for the client. Cultural gap might hinder resolving of conflicts as witnessed across various governmental negotiations across countries. In globalized environment, a business or a negotiator should evaluate all possible factors influencing negotiation such that benefits can accrue to both aggrieved parties. The best and most suitable negotiation style starts with capability and ability to be a good listener such that grievances from both sides can be heard. A negotiator needs to also have good communication skills with emotional contr ol along with interpersonal skills and reliability. When one can develop these skills then one is capable of delivering appropriate results in regards to negotiations. Hence, from the analysis of the above essay it can be established that for a successful negotiation to take place, it becomes integral to adopt skills and personal capabilities of a negotiator. In global negotiation process along with such skills and capabilities, an individual needs to develop substantial understanding of the other culture such that he is able to apply negotiating skills and arrive at a suitable contract. Negotiation has an integral role in everyday life and in organizations as well thus, a successful negotiator needs to aim at learning such skills such that he is able to ethically resolve conflicts. The primary goal and aim of negotiation are needed to establish a long-term relationship rather than short term oriented goals. References Ashmore, B. and Grogg, J.E., 2009. The art of the deal.Searcher,17(1), pp.18-25. Brewster, C. and Mayrhofer, W., 2011. Comparative human resource management.International human resource management,3, pp.47-78. 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